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Dr. N. (Niels) Smits

Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences
Programme group: Methods and statistics
Visiting address
  • Nieuwe Achtergracht 127
Postal address
  • Postbus 15776
    1001 NG Amsterdam
Contact details
  • Research

    My expertise lies in applied statistics and psychometrics. I am especially interested in developing methods for efficient assessment like computerized adaptive testing and stochastic curtailment. Other interests are test construction, the analysis of missing data, (psychometric) decision theory, classification, and machine learning. In addition, I assist applied researchers in planning, analyzing and reporting their research.

  • Publications

    2023

    • van Dorresteijn, C., Kan, K-J., & Smits, N. (2023). Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence: On the limited use of regression discontinuity analysis in higher education. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 48(1), 16-26. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.2016606 [details]
    • van der Ark, L. A., & Smits, N. (2023). Computerized adaptive testing without IRT for flexible measurement and prediction. In L. A. van der Ark, W. H. M. Emons, & R. R. Meijer (Eds.), Methodology of educational measurement and assessment (pp. 369-388). (Methodology of Educational Measurement and Assessment). Springer. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10370-4_19

    2022

    • Flens, G., Terwee, C. B., Smits, N., Williams, G., Spinhoven, P., Roorda, L. D., & de Beurs, E. (2022). Construct validity, responsiveness, and utility of change indicators of the Dutch-Flemish PROMIS item banks for depression and anxiety administered as Computerized Adaptive Test (CAT): A comparison with the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). Psychological Assessment, 34(1), 58-69. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001068 [details]

    2021

    • Flens, G., Smits, N., Terwee, C. B., Pijck, L., Spinhoven, P., & de Beurs, E. (2021). Practical Significance of Longitudinal Measurement Invariance Violations in the Dutch–Flemish PROMIS Item Banks for Depression and Anxiety: An Illustration With Ordered-Categorical Data. Assessment, 28(1), 277-294. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119880967 [details]
    • Terwee, C. B., Crins, M. H. P., Roorda, L. D., Cook, K. F., Cella, D., Smits, N., & Schalet, B. D. (2021). International application of PROMIS computerized adaptive tests: US versus country-specific item parameters can be consequential for individual patient scores. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 134, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.01.011 [details]

    2020

    • Conijn, J. M., Smits, N., & Hartman, E. E. (2020). Determining at what age children provide sound self-reports: An illustration of the validity-index approach. Assessment, 27(7), 1604-1618. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119832655 [details]
    • Crins, M. H. P., Terwee, C. B., Westhovens, R., van Schaardenburg, D., Smits, N., Joly, J., Verschueren, P., Van der Elst, K., Dekker, J., Boers, M., & Roorda, L. D. (2020). First Validation of the Full PROMIS Pain Interference and Pain Behavior Item Banks in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis. Arthritis Care & Research, 72(11), 1550-1559. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.24077 [details]
    • Finkelman, M. D., Jamison, R. N., Kulich, R. J., Butler, S. F., Smits, N., & Weiner, S. G. (2020). A Comparison of Short Forms of the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients With Pain – Revised (SOAPP-R). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 36(2), 387–398. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000519 [details]
    • Smits, N., Öğreden, O., Garnier-Villarreal, M., Terwee, C. B., & Chalmers, R. P. (2020). A study of alternative approaches to non-normal latent trait distributions in item response theory models used for health outcome measurement. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 29(4), 1030-1048. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0962280220907625 [details]

    2019

    • Flens, G., Smits, N., Terwee, C. B., Dekker, J., Huijbrechts, I., Spinhoven, P., & de Beurs, E. (2019). Development of a Computerized Adaptive Test for Anxiety Based on the Dutch–Flemish Version of the PROMIS Item Bank. Assessment, 26(7), 1362-1374. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117746742 [details]
    • Oosterveld, P., Vorst, H. C. M., & Smits, N. (2019). Methods for questionnaire design: a taxonomy linking procedures to test goals. Quality of Life Research, 28(9), 2501-2512. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-019-02209-6 [details]

    2018

    • Finkelman, M. D., Jamison, R. N., Magnuson, B., Kulich, R. J., Butler, S. F., Smits, N., & Weiner, S. G. (2018). Computer-based testing and the 12-item Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised: A combined approach to improving efficiency. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, Article e12145. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/jabr.12145
    • Finkelman, M. D., Lowe, S. R., Kim, W., Gruebner, O., Smits, N., & Galea, S. (2018). Item Ordering and Computerized Classification Tests With Cluster-Based Scoring: An Investigation of the Countdown Method. Psychological Assessment, 30(2), 204-219. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000470 [details]
    • Fokkema, M., Smits, N., Zeileis, A., Hothorn, T., & Kelderman, H. (2018). Detecting treatment-subgroup interactions in clustered data with generalized linear mixed-effects model trees. Behavior Research Methods, 50(5), 2016-2034. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0971-x [details]
    • Smits, N., Paap, M. C. S., & Böhnke, J. R. (2018). Some recommendations for developing multidimensional computerized adaptive tests for patient-reported outcomes. Quality of Life Research, 27(4), 1055-1063. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-018-1821-8 [details]
    • Smits, N., van der Ark, L. A., & Conijn, J. M. (2018). Measurement versus prediction in the construction of patient-reported outcome questionnaires: Can we have our cake and eat it? Quality of Life Research, 7(27), 1673-1682. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1720-4 [details]

    2017

    2016

    • Boeschen Hospers, J. M., Smits, N., Smits, C., Stam, M., Terwee, C. B., & Kramer, S. E. (2016). Reevaluation of the Amsterdam Inventory for Auditory Disability and Handicap Using Item Response Theory. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59, 373-383. https://doi.org/10.1044/2015_JSLHR-H-15-0156 [details]
    • Crins, M. H. P., Roorda, L. D., Smits, N., de Vet, H. C. W., Westhovens, R., Cella, D., Cook, K. F., Revicki, D., van Leeuwen, J., Boers, M., Dekker, J., & Terwee, C. B. (2016). Calibration of the Dutch-Flemish PROMIS Pain Behavior item bank in patients with chronic pain. European Journal of Pain, 20(2), 284-296. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.727 [details]
    • Driessen, E., Smits, N., Dekker, J. J. M., Peen, J., Don, F. J., Kool, S., Westra, D., Hendriksen, M., Cuijpers, P., & Van, H. L. (2016). Differential efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy and psychodynamic therapy for major depression: A study of prescriptive factors. Psychological Medicine, 46(4), 731-744. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715001853 [details]
    • Finkelman, M. D., Kulich, R. J., Butler, S. F., Jackson, W. C., Friedman, F. D., Smits, N., & Weiner, S. G. (2016). An investigation of completion times on the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain - revised (SOAPP-R). Journal of Pain Research, 9, 1163-1171. https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S123454 [details]
    • Finkelman, M. D., Smits, N., Kulich, R. J., Zacharoff, K. L., Magnuson, B. E., Chang, H., Dong, J., & Butler, S. F. (2016). Development of Short-Form Versions of the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R): A Proof-of-Principle Study . Pain Medicine, 18(7), 1292-1302. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnw210 [details]
    • Flens, G., Smits, N., Carlier, I., van Hemert, A. M., & de Beurs, E. (2016). Simulating Computer Adaptive Testing With the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 28(8), 953-962. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000240 [details]
    • Smits, N. (2016). On the effect of adding clinical samples to validation studies of patient-reported outcome item banks: a simulation study. Quality of Life Research, 25(7), 1635-1644. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-015-1199-9 [details]
    • Smits, N., Finkelman, M. D., & Kelderman, H. (2016). Stochastic curtailment of questionnaires for three-level classification: Shortening the CES-D for assessing low, moderate, and high risk of depression. Applied Psychological Measurement, 40(1), 22-36. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621615592294 [details]
    • Terluin, B., Smits, N., Brouwers, E. P. M., & de Vet, H. C. W. (2016). The Four-Dimensional Symptom Questionnaire (4DSQ) in the general population: scale structure, reliability, measurement invariance and normative data: a cross-sectional survey. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 14, Article 130. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-016-0533-4 [details]

    2015

    • Crins, M. H. P., Roorda, L. D., Smits, N., de Vet, H. C. W., Westenhovens, R., Cella, D., Cook, K. F., Revicki, D., van Leeuwen, J., Boers, M., Dekker, J., & Terwee, C. B. (2015). Calibration and validation of the Dutch-Flemish PROMIS pain interference item bank in patients with chronic pain. PLoS ONE, 10(7), Article e0134094. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134094 [details]
    • Finkelman, M. D., Kulich, R. J., Zacharoff, K. L., Smits, N., Magnuson, B. E., Dong, J., & Butler, S. F. (2015). Shortening the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R): A proof-of-principle study for customized computer-based testing. Pain Medicine, 16(12), 2344-2356. https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12864 [details]
    • Fokkema, M., Smits, N., Kelderman, H., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2015). Connecting clinical and actuarial prediction with rule-based methods. Psychological Assessment, 27(2), 636-644. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000072 [details]
    • Kerkhof, W., Stoel, R. D., Berger, C. E. H., Mattijssen, E. J. A. T., Hermsen, R., Smits, N., & Hardy, H. J. J. (2015). Design and results of an exploratory double blind testing program in firearms examination. Science & justice, 55(6), 514-519. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2015.06.007 [details]
    • Sie, H., Finkelman, M. D., Riley, B., & Smits, N. (2015). Utilizing response times in computerized classification testing. Applied Psychological Measurement, 39(5), 389-405. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621615569504 [details]
    • Smits, N., & Finkelman, M. D. (2015). Shortening the PHQ-9: a proof-of-principle study of utilizing Stochastic Curtailment as a method for constructing ultrashort screening instruments. General Hospital Psychiatry, 37(5), 464-469. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.04.011 [details]
    • Smits, N., Kelderman, H., & Hoeksma, J. B. (2015). Een vergelijking van compensatoir en conjunctief toetsen in het hoger onderwijs. Pedagogische Studiën, 92(4), 275-285. http://pedagogischestudien.nl/search?identifier=616428 [details]
    • Sorsdahl, K., Stein, D. J., Cuijpers, P., Smits, N., Naledi, T., & Myers, B. (2015). The efficacy of a blended motivational interviewing and problem solving therapy intervention to reduce substance use among patients presenting for emergency services in South Africa: A randomized controlled trial. Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy, 10(46). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-015-0042-1 [details]

    2014

    • Fokkema, M., Smits, N., Finkelman, M. D., Kelderman, H., & Cuijpers, P. (2014). Curtailment: A method to reduce the length of self-report questionnaires while maintaining diagnostic accuracy. Psychiatry Research, 215(2), 477-482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.11.003
    • Fokkema, M., Smits, N., Kelderman, H., Carlier, I. V. E., & van Hemert, A. M. (2014). Combining Decision Trees and Stochastic Curtailment for Assessment Length Reduction of Test Batteries Used for Classification. Applied Psychological Measurement, 38(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621613494466
    • Smits, N., & Finkelman, M. D. (2014). Variable length testing using the ordinal regression model. Statistics in Medicine, 33(3), 488-499. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.5936
    • Terluin, B., Smits, N., & Miedema, B. (2014). The English version of the four-dimensional symptom questionnaire (4DSQ) measures the same as the original Dutch questionnaire: a validation study. The European journal of general practice, 20(4), 320-326. https://doi.org/10.3109/13814788.2014.905826

    2013

    • De Kieviet, J. F., Stoof, C. J. J., Geldof, C. J. A., Smits, N., Piek, J. P., Lafeber, H. N., Van Elburg, R. M., & Oosterlaan, J. (2013). The crucial role of the predictability of motor response in visuomotor deficits in very preterm children at school age. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 55(7), 624-630. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12125
    • Finkelman, M. D., Kulich, R. J., Zoukhri, D., Smits, N., & Butler, S. F. (2013). Shortening the Current Opioid Misuse Measure via computer-based testing: a retrospective proof-of-concept study. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 13, Article 126. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-13-126
    • Fokkema, M., Smits, N., Kelderman, H., & Cuijpers, P. (2013). Response shifts in mental health interventions: an illustration of longitudinal measurement invariance. Psychological Assessment, 25(2), 520-531. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031669

    2012

    • Finkelman, M. D., Smits, N., Kim, W., & Riley, B. (2012). Curtailment and Stochastic Curtailment to Shorten the CES-D. Applied Psychological Measurement, 36(8), 632-658. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621612451647
    • Smits, N., Zitman, F. G., Cuijpers, P., den Hollander-Gijsman, M. E., & Carlier, I. V. E. (2012). A proof of principle for using adaptive testing in Routine Outcome Monitoring: the efficiency of the Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Questionnaire -Anhedonic Depression CAT. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 12, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-12-4
    • Spee, H., Smits, N., & de Koning, H. (2012). Bruikbaarheid van Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) voor prevalentieschatting van depressie en angststoornissen. TSG Tijdschrift voor Gezondheidswetenschappen, 90(3), 145-149.

    2011

    • Ekkers, W., Korrelboom, K., Huijbrechts, I., Smits, N., Cuijpers, P., & van der Gaag, M. (2011). Competitive Memory Training for treating depression and rumination in depressed older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(10), 588-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.05.010
    • Hillege, S., de Ruiter, C., Smits, N., van der Baan, H., & Das, J. (2011). Structural and metric validity of the dutch translation of psychopathy checklist: Youth version (PCL:YV). International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 10(4), 346-357. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2011.631207
    • Smits, N., Cuijpers, P., & van Straten, A. (2011). Applying computerized adaptive testing to the CES-D scale: a simulation study. Psychiatry Research, 188(1), 147-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.12.001
    • Zhang, B., Fokkema, M., Cuijpers, P., Li, J., Smits, N., & Beekman, A. (2011). Measurement invariance of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) among Chinese and Dutch elderly. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11, Article 74. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-74

    2010

    2009

    • Cuijpers, P., Smits, N., Donker, T., ten Have, M., & de Graaf, R. (2009). Screening for mood and anxiety disorders with the five-item, the three-item, and the two-item Mental Health Inventory. Psychiatry Research, 168(3), 250-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.012
    • Meulenbeek, P., Willemse, G., Smit, F., Smits, N., van Balkom, A., Spinhoven, P., & Cuijpers, P. (2009). Effects and feasibility of a preventive intervention in sub-threshold and mild panic disorder: Results of a pilot study. BMC Research Notes, 2, Article 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-2-4

    2008

    • Cuijpers, P., Van Straten, A., Warmerdam, L., & Smits, N. (2008). Characteristics of effective psychological treatments of depression: A metaregression analysis. Psychotherapy Research, 18(2), 225-236. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300701442027
    • Smits, F., Smits, N., Schoevers, R., Deeg, D., Beekman, A., & Cuijpers, P. (2008). An epidemiological approach to depression prevention in old age. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16(6), 444-453. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181662ab6
    • Spek, V., Cuijpers, P., Nyklíček, I., Smits, N., Riper, H., Keyzer, J., & Pop, V. (2008). One-year follow-up results of a randomized controlled clinical trial on internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy for subthreshold depression in people over 50 years. Psychological Medicine, 38(5), 635-639. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707002590
    • Van Straten, A., Cuijpers, P., & Smits, N. (2008). Effectiveness of a web-based self-help intervention for symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 10(1), Article e7. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.954
    • de Bruin, A. B. H., Smits, N., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2008). Deliberate practice predicts performance over time in adolescent chess players and drop-outs: a linear mixed models analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 99(Pt 4), 473-97. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712608X295631
    • te Brake, H., Smits, N., Wicherts, J. M., Gorter, R. C., & Hoogstraten, J. (2008). Burnout development among dentists: a longitudinal study. European Journal of Oral Sciences, 116(6), 545-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0722.2008.00584.x [details]

    2007

    • Cuijpers, P., Dekker, J., Noteboom, A., Smits, N., & Peen, J. (2007). Sensitivity and specificity of the Major Depression Inventory in outpatients. BMC Psychiatry, 7, Article 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-7-39
    • Evelina Ascalon, M., Meyers, L. S., Davis, B. W., & Smits, N. (2007). Distractor similarity and item-stem structure: Effects on item difficulty. Applied Measurement in Education, 20(2), 153-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/08957340701301272
    • Smits, N., & Vorst, H. C. M. (2007). Reducing the length of questionnaires through structurally incomplete designs: An illustration. Learning and Individual Differences, 17(1), 25-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2006.12.005
    • Smits, N., Cuijpers, P., Beekman, A. T. F., & Smit, J. H. (2007). Reducing the length of mental health instruments through structurally incomplete designs. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 16(3), 150-60. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.223
    • Smits, N., Smit, F., Cuijpers, P., & De Graaf, R. (2007). Using decision theory to derive optimal cut-off scores of screening instruments: an illustration explicating costs and benefits of mental health screening. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 16(4), 219-29. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.230
    • Spek, V., Nyklíček, I., Smits, N., Cuijpers, P., Riper, H., Keyzer, J., & Pop, V. (2007). Internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy for subthreshold depression in people over 50 years old: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Psychological Medicine, 37(12), 1797-1806. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707000542

    2006

    • Cuijpers, P., Van Straten, A., Smits, N., & Smit, F. (2006). Screening and early psychological intervention for depression in schools: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 15(5), 300-307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0537-4

    2020

    • de Jonge, H., & Smits, N. (2020). Een Onderzoek naar het Verband tussen Voortgangstoetsen en Studievoortgang: Intern Rapport in Opdracht van de Universiteit van Amsterdam.

    2017

    • Zeileis, A., Gruen, B., Leisch, F., Umlauf, N., Smits, N., Birbaumer, M., & Ernst, D. (2017, Sep 23). Package ‘exams’: Automatic generation of exams in R.

    2016

    • Finkelman, M., Smits, N., Kulich, R., Zacharoff, K., Magnuson, B., Chang, H., Dong, J., & Butler, S. (2016). A proof of concept for short forms of the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R). The Journal of Pain, 17(4, supplement), S24-S25. Article 196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2016.01.099

    2015

    2018

    2015

    • Flens, G., Smits, N., Terwee, C. B., & de Beurs, E. (2015). Development of Dutch computer adaptive tests for anxiety and depression using the PROMIS item banks. Paper presented at 22nd Annual Conference of the International Society For Quality Of Life Research (ISOQOL) 2015, Vancouver, Canada.

    2015

    • Crins, M. H., Terwee, C. B., Westenhovens, R., van Schaardenburg, D-J., Smits, N., Joly, F., Verschueren, P., van der Elst, K., Cella, D., Cook, K. F., Dekker, J., Boers, M., & Roorda, L. D. (2015). Validation of the Dutch-Flemish promis pain behavior and pain interference item banks in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 74(Suppl. 2), Article THU0599. https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-eular.2335
    • Finkelman, M., Kulich, R., Zacharoff, K., Smits, N., Magnuson, B., Dong, J., & Butler, S. (2015). Reducing the respondent burden of the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R): an approach using curtailment and stochastic curtailment. The Journal of Pain, 16(4, Supplement), S22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2015.01.099

    Talk / presentation

    • Smits, N. (speaker) (19-7-2017). Measurement Versus Prediction in Test Construction, 82nd Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Zurich.
    • Smits, N. (speaker) (25-11-2016). The application of psychometrics in clinical contexts: issues and new methods, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
    • Smits, N. (speaker) (28-7-2016). Stochastic curtailment using the isotonic sequential regression model, VII European Congress of Methodology, Palma de Mallorca.
    • Smits, N. (speaker) (19-2-2016). Stochastic curtailment using the isotonic sequential regression model, International Workshop on Psychometric Computing (Psychoco) 2016, Liège.
    • Smits, N. (invited speaker) (17-12-2015). Don't ask too many questions: Stochastic curtailment of questionnaire data, Invited lecture at Empirical Economics and Econometrics Seminar, Innsbruck University, Innsbruck, Austria.
    • Crins, M. H. (speaker), Terwee, C. B. (speaker), Westenhovens, R. (speaker), van Schaardenburg, D.-J. (speaker), Joly, J. (speaker), Smits, N. (speaker), Verschueren, P. (speaker), van der Elst, K. (speaker), Cella, D. (speaker), Cook, K. F. (speaker), Dekker, J. (speaker), Boers, M. (speaker) & Roorda, L. D. (speaker) (21-10-2014). Calibration and validation of the Dutch-Flemish PROMIS pain behavior and pain interference item banks in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Paper presented at the 22nd Annual Conference of the International Society for Quality of Life Research, Vancouver, Canada.
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